ຮຽນ-ພາສາອັງກິດ

Grammar in English ຫຼັກໄວຍາກອນໃນພາສາອັງກິດ.

Simple Present Tense

1A. Explanation The simple present tense takes one of two forms depending on the subject. Subject base form -s form I, you eat They, We go Plural nouns work He, She, It eats Singular nouns goes Non count-nouns works 1B. Examples Subjects followed by verb in base form: Subjects with verb in –s form I like rice. She makes toys. You look nice. He rakes leaves. They think twice. It takes time. We throw dice. Mom bakes pies. Chefs use spice. Water slakes thirst. The boys ring the doorbell. Jill loves dates. Children sing on special occasions. Mr. Smith fills crates. Some people bring gifts to parties. Grandpa washes plates. Bees sting when they are disturbed. The dog jumps gates. 1C. Exercises 1. Jerry (come/comes) to school on time.2. Jerry and Linda (come/comes) to school on time. 3. Ms. Jones (teach/teaches) geography. 4. The cat (sleep/sleeps) on the sofa every day. 5. Milk (cost/costs) two dollars a quart. 2A. Explanation Use the simple present tense to indicate:1. Routine actions 2. Facts 2B. Examples Routine actions Facts John brushes his teeth every morning. Hawaii is in the Pacific Ocean. Carol usually drives to work. Some birds fly south for the winter. The teacher grades homework on Fridays. Water consists of hydrogen and oxygen. Note how the present tense is used in the following paragraph. Mr. Lee is a bus driver. Every day he gets up at 7:00 a.m. and prepares for his day. He showers, eats his breakfast, and puts on his uniform. His wife drives him to the station where he checks in with his supervisor. Then, he gets on Bus #405 and starts the engine. He pulls out of the parking lot and begins his route. At his first stop, he picks up Mrs. Miller, who lives in a red house on the corner of Main Street and Seventh Avenue. She works at the post office and has to be to work by 9:00. At the next stop, the Bartlett twins get on the bus. They attend class at Bayside Elementary. More children get on at the next three stops, and they ride until the bus reaches their school. Mr. Lee enjoys seeing the kids every day and is happy to see them again in the afternoon when he drives them safely back home. 2C. Exercises 1. To practice the present tense, reread the above paragraph, then try to repeat the main ideas in your own words. Be sure to use the -s form of the verb when the subject of a sentence is singular. Have a partner listen to your speech and check for correct usage of verbs.2. Tell whether the present tense is appropriate in the following sentences. 1. Yesterday I go to Washington D.C.2. Everyday, Mr. Johnson cleans his room. 3. They usually take the bus to the office. 4. Right now Susan eats her breakfast. 5. Melinda and Harry work in the bank. CorrectCorrect Correct Correct Correct IncorrectIncorrect Incorrect Incorrect Incorrect   Common Mistakes with the simple present tense 1. Not using the -s form with singular subjects: Jack likes Chinese food.Jack like Chinese food. (Correct)(Incorrect) 2. Using the simple present tense when another tense is required. Last night I watched television for two hours.Last night I watch television for two hours. (Correct)(Incorrect)

Present Progressive / Continuous

The present progressive tense takes the form be + V ing.The form of “be” is determined by the subject of the sentence. He is singing.She is listening. They are sleeping. I am going home. In English, the present progressive is used to indicate actions happening at the time of speaking, or right now. Jake is speaking to his mother right now.Please keep quiet. The baby is sleeping. The present progressive can also be used to indicate actions occurring over a period of time which includes the present. I’m taking five classes at the university.Grace is working at a chemical factory. What are you doing these days? The present progressive is sometimes used to indicate ongoing, developing, imminent or future actions. Ongoing Don’t bother Mr. Grumpy while he is watching the football game. Developing I’m beginning to like this place! Imminent A: Honey, where are you? B: I’m coming. Just let me put on my shoes. Future (Note the presence of future time words.) A: Are you going to the concert this weekend? B: I wish I could, but I’m meeting an important client from Oklahoma. Some non-action verbs do not occur in the present progressive tense. The simple present is sufficient.

Past Simple

Explanation 1. The simple past tense is expressed with the past form of the verb and nothing else. My grandfather died last year. (Correct) My grandfather was died last year. (Incorrect) My grandfather has died last year. (Incorrect) 2. The simple past tense refers to a. action which occurred at a specific time in the past b. completed action c. past status Examples Specific past action Completed action Past status I ate lunch at noon today. He drove to work yesterday. She finally mailed the letter. Jan finished her report on time. John was still single in 1995. Jane was a movie star. Note the usage of the past tense in the following story.  Yesterday Mrs. Hubbard had a very rough day. In the morning, she went to the kitchen and looked in the cupboard for some food for her dog, but the cupboard was empty. Her poor dog stared up at her with its hungry eyes, and she knew she had to do something quickly. She hurried to the grocery store to buy some dog food, but unfortunately the store was out of her dog’s favorite brand, so she had to catch a bus downtown. After buying the food, she waited for a half hour in the rain to get a taxi. When she finally got home, her dog was sound asleep on the living room sofa. Common problems with the past tense 1. Using the present tense when the past tense is required. Last week, Tonya fix her neighbor’s car. (Incorrect) Last week, Tonya fixed her neighbor’s car. (Correct) 2. Using “was” with verbs in the past tense. Past Progressive / Continuous Past progressive tense is used to indicate that an action was in progress when another action occurred in the past. Past progressive (was/were + Ving) refers to the action in progress, and simple past tense refers to the "interrupting" action. While I was eating dinner, the telephone rang.The telephone rang while I was eating dinner. When the telephone rang, I was eating dinner. I was eating dinner when the telephone rang. Past continuous can also be used to indicate only one action which occurred in the past: What was John doing yesterday?He was working at the factory. What were they doing yesterday afternoon? They were playing soccer. What were you doing last night? I was studying English. Present Perfect Simple Present Perfect Tense can be used in three situations: 1. To indicate something that has happened at an indefinite time in the past. I have seen that movie already. She has left for California. They have not eaten their dinner yet. 2. To indicate something which started in the  past and continues until now. I have lived in New York for nine years. We have been here since Friday. He has played football since he was a child. 3. To indicate something which occurred recently. I have been sick lately. She hasn’t slept much recently. Notes: When speaking about a specific time, use past tense. A: I have seen that movie already. (Non-specific time) B: Oh really? When did you see it? A: I saw it last week with Bob. (Specific time) Some words should not be used in situation 2 (above) I have met John for five years. (INCORRECT) I have known John for five years. (CORRECT) I met John five years ago. (CORRECT) I have met John already. (CORRECT) Sometimes, but not I have lived there for ten years. (Okay) I have been living there for ten years. (Okay) I have exercised a lot recently. (Okay) I have been exercising a lot recently. (Okay) I have seen that movie ten times. (Okay) I have been seeing that movie ten times. (NOT Okay) Present Perfect Progressive   present perfect continuous can be used instead of present perfect The present perfect progressive expresses the meaning “until now” and makes the connection between the past and present. Since it is progressive, it usually connotes an idea of continuity. It is often used with prepositional phrases: for + amount of time and since + point in time. I have been living in Minneapolis since 1999. I have been living in Minneapolis for three years. The present perfect progressive tense is made by placing have been (or has been) immediately in front of the –ing form of the main verb. The present perfect progressive can sometimes be interchanged with the present perfect tense with little or no deviation in meaning. Esther has worked there for nine years. Esther has been working there for nine years. However, in cases where the present perfect tense carries the meaning “before now” (non-specific time in the past), the present perfect progressive cannot be used. I have been seeing that movie five times already.I have seen that movie five times already. (Incorrect!)(Correct) Past Perfect Past perfect tense is used to indicate that one action occurred before another action in the  past. In other words, past perfect tense indicates the first of the two actions.* For example, When I woke up this morning, my roommate had left already. After I had eaten my dinner, I went to see a movie. Before I arrived at the theater, the movie had already begun. Sometimes, when the meaning is clear from context, the simple past tense can be used. After I had gone shopping, I stopped at the health spa. After I went shopping, I stopped at the health spa. The most common error with the past perfect is using it where it does not belong. When I was young, I had been a cowboy. When I was young, I was a cowboy. (Incorrect—no reference to other events)(Correct) Yesterday the Johnsons had opened their new business.Yesterday the Johnsons opened their new business. (Incorrect) (Correct) *In some very unusual cases, the past perfect tense can refer to the second past action. Before I had finished my homework, the telephone rang. (The telephone interrupted me before I finished my homework.) Future Simple In English the Future Time is expressed in a number of ways. The most common are with will and be going to. See examples from the following sentences. I will finish my homework in an hour. I’m going to finish my homework in an hour. With be going to, make sure the verb be agrees with its subject. I’m going to eat a whole watermelon. She’s going to eat a whole watermelon. Actually, we’re going to eat a whole watermelon together. In speech, the words going to are often pronounced “ gonna .” Don’t forget the be verb. A: What are you gonna do this weekend? B: I’m gonna stay home and clean my carpet. NOT: I gonna stay… NOT: I’m gonna to stay… What’s the difference between will and be going to? Both can be used interchangeably in some cases. (Predictions and guesses) My prints will be here tomorrow. My prints are going to be here tomorrow. Be going to is preferable for strong intentions or for describing the inevitable. I’m going to give her a piece of my mind. There’s no way they can score 21 points in 2 minutes. We’re going to win! Will is the preferable form for making offers or expressing pop decisions. A: Who will help me finish this chocolate cake? B: I will. A: I have two tickets left for the front row. B: I’ll take them. Sometimes future time can be expressed with either the present or present progressive tense. In such cases, time words must be expressed or clearly implied. I fly to Beijing tomorrow. I’m flying to Beijing tomorrow. Sorry I can’t attend the picnic on Saturday. I’m flying to Beijing. Future Progressive Future progressive tense is used to indicate action which will be taking place at some time in the future. For example, I will be singing at Symphony Hall next month. We’ll be leaving next Monday. When you arrive, I’ll be cooking dinner. The future progressive tense is formed by adding will be to the –ing form of the main verb. She will be coming around the mountain in a few minutes. She’ll be riding a white horse into town. The future progressive tense is not as common as other tenses, and it can some-times be replaced by simple future, present progressive or even simple present. I’ll be leaving in a few minutes. I’ll leave in a few minutes. I’m going to leave in a few minutes. I’m leaving in a few minutes. I leave in a few minutes. Future Perfect The future perfect tense is not commonly used in English. It indicates that an action will be completed in the future (usually before some other action or event). I will finish my Russian course in June. In July, I will begin studying Chinese. By the time I begin studying Chinese, I will have finished my Russian course. When I finish this race, I will have run a total of five miles. Before they leave for Miami, they will have visited Houston and New Orleans. The important thing to remember is the time of completion. (Beginning time may vary.) I started studying last year. I will have passed my exams when I graduate next June. I am studying right now. I will have passed my exams when I graduate next June. I will start studying next month. I will have passed my exams when I graduate next June. Go + Ving Some activities are commonly expressed in English by the phrase Go + Ving. See the list below. go camping go hiking go fishing go hunting go swimming go diving go surfing go snorkeling go water skiing go scuba diving go wind surfing go skiing go snowboarding go (ice) skating go shopping go bowling go roller skating go jogging go running go rollerblading go skateboarding go sky diving go parachuting go parasailing Examples: A: Would you like to go skiing this weekend? B: No, I’d rather go ice skating. A: Did you go bowling last night? B: Actually, I went shopping instead. Common mistakes: I want to camping on Saturday. (Incorrect) I want to go camping on Saturday. (Correct) They went to jogging this morning. (Incorrect) They went jogging this morning. (Correct) I like to swimming. (Incorrect) I like to swim. (Okay) I like swimming. (Okay) I like to go swimming. (Okay) I like going swimming. (Okay)   Gerunds Gerunds are defined as the –ing form of a verb. They have several functions. 1. Used as subjects and complements Skiing is my favorite sport. Hiking can be very strenuous. Seeing is believing 2. Used as objects following prepositions and prepositional expressions Thanks for tending my children. The job consists of typing, filing, and answering the phone. 3. Used as objects following certain verbs*. The children enjoyed watching the parade. Ms. Terrell avoided paying her taxes until it was too late. Gerunds can sometimes take objects of their own: Roland is afraid of making mistakes. Sandy is considering leaving New York. *These verbs are commonly followed by gerunds. admit begin discuss hate love practice regret stop advise can't help dislike hesitate mention prefer remember suggest anticipate complete enjoy imagine mind quit resent threaten appreciate consider finish intend miss recall resist tolerate attempt delay forget keep neglect recollect risk try avoid deny go like postpone recommend start understand To V or Not To V The word “to” is often confusing in English. It can be used as part of a modal expression, infinitive or as a preposition. Note the usage of “to” in the following sentences. To VI used to live in Utah. I am supposed to go. I hope to see you. To V ingI am used to living in Utah. I am opposed to going. I look forward to seeing you. Modal expressions are always followed by the base form of the verb. ought tohave to have got to used to be tobe able to be supposed to be going to Similar expressions are followed by infinitives (to + V) need to Vwant to V hope to V happen to V mean to V tend to V care to V wish to V would like to V be allowed to Vbe inclined to V be reluctant to V be willing to V be happy to V be afraid to V be required to V be delighted to V be compelled to V Many prepositional combinations using “to” are followed by gerunds. look forward to V ingresort to V ing submit to V ing confess to V ing give in to V ing admit to V ing with regards to V ing be accustomed to V ingbe addicted to V ing be opposed to V ing be limited to V ing be dedicated to V ing be commited to V ing be used to V ing Infinitives Infinitives are defined as to + base form of the verb. They have several functions. 1. Used as subjects and subject complements. To know me is to love me. To live in Hawaii is my lifetime dream. 2. Used as objects following certain verbs*. I wanted to tell you how much I appreciated your gift. He hesitated to ask the embarrassing question. 3. Used as a shortened form of in order to. You must take this medicine (in order) to get well. I went to the bank to cash a check. Infinitives can sometimes take objects of their own. We hope to find the person who did this. I was asked to make a dessert for the potluck dinner. *These verbs are commonly followed by infinitives. afford beg decide forget intend mean prepare seem threaten agree begin demand go know how need pretend start try appear care deserve happen learn neglect promise stop volunteer arrange choose desire hate like offer refuse struggle wait ask claim expect hesitate love plan regret swear want attempt consent fail hope manage prefer remember tend wish

Comparatives 

Use –er to compare one syllable adjectives and adverbs as well as two-syllable adjectives ending in –y.

A horse is bigger than a dog.
He is shorter than his brother.
I’m busier today than I was yesterday.
I can run faster than you can.
My house is smaller.
It’s the lesser of two evils.

Use more or less to compare most other adjectives and adverbs.

She is more helpful than her sister.
Mr. Gallant is more courageous than his cousin.
Craig is less practical than Kay.
Celine sings more beautifully than Barbara.

For better or worse

Use better and worse for comparisons with good or well.

That’s a good movie, but this one is better.
Actually, I think that one is worse.

Use as . . . as to show similarity

He’s as quick as his brother.
This chair is not as comfortable as that one.

Superlatives

Use the …-est to indicate the superlative of one-syllable adjectives and adverbs as well as two-syllable adjectives ending in –y.

He’s the fastest man alive.
That’s the funniest clown I’ve ever seen.
Ben works the hardest of them all.

Use the best or the worst as the superlative of good or well.

This is the best deal I can offer you.
That was the best time I’ve ever had.
It was the worst dinner I’ve ever cooked.
I like this one (the) best.

Use the most + adjective/adverb to indicate the superlative of longer adjectives and adverbs.

He’s the most wonderful man I’ve met.
That was the most difficult exam I’ve ever taken.
Chris sings the most beautifully of them all.

Article ຄຳນຳໜ້ານາມ

Singular count nouns cannot stand alone in a sentence.

Apple is on table. (Wrong!)

They must be preceded by one of the following:

1. An article (the, a, an)

An apple is on the table.
The professor gave us a test.

2. A number or quantifier (one, another, the other, each, every, either, neither)

One man was in Chicago.
The other man was in Saint Paul.
Neither man was with his wife.
Either man could be in trouble.

Note: Never use the and another, each, every, neither, either together:

The another man was in Milwaukee. (Wrong!)

3. This, that, some*

This artist created that painting.
Some woman came to see you. (*unidentified subject)

4. A possessive pronoun or noun.

It is my bicycle now.
It was John’s bicycle.

 Note: Do not use articles and possessives together.

The Mary’s bicycle was stolen. (Wrong!)

Proper nouns have their own article usage.

Don Smith lived next door to Dr. Zimbango.
The Empire State Building is in New York City.

Non-count and plural nouns can be used without articles only in the “generic” sense:

Cats are enemies of dogs.
Water is essential for survival.

Article Chart ຕາຕະລາງສະແດງການນຳໃຊ້ຄຳນຳໜ້ານາມ.

	Specific (This one, that one) (This/that group) Which one? Which ones?	Non-Specific Any one Any group One of many One of many groups	GenericIn general
Count Singular	The apple The bird The child	An apple A bird A child	* *
Count Plural	The apples The birds The children	Some apples Some birds Some children	Apples Birds Children
Non-count	The water The information	Some water Some information	Water Information

Specific articles are used with nouns which have been identified previously. (The speaker and the listener both know which thing/person/substance/idea is being referred to.) The teacher is coming up the stairs. (Both listener and speaker know which teacher and which stairs.) Give me the red shirt. (I know which one you are talking about.) Non-specific articles are used with nouns that have not been identified previously (by both the speaker and the listener.) They are used with items that have not been singled-out yet. (Note: As soon as the items are identified, they require a specific article.) I want a candy bar. (Any candy bar will do.) Which one do you want? (Asking for specification) The one on the right. (I choose that one.) Give me some milk. (Any milk is fine.) I need some new shoes. (But I haven’t decided which ones to buy yet.) I bought some shoes at Valmart. (I know which shoes, but you don’t.) These are the shoes that I bought. (Now we both know which ones.) Non-count and plural nouns are used without articles in the generic sense. Cats are afraid of dogs. (in general) Water is necessary for survival. *However, singular count nouns cannot stand alone in a sentence, so an article (usually a or an) is used. Oranges contain Vitamin C. (generally) Orange contains Vitamin C. (incorrect) An orange contains Vitamin C. (okay) The Verb "Be"    The verb “be” takes on different forms in the present and past. I He She It You They we Present am is is is are are are Contraction 'm 's 's 's 're 're 're Past was was was was were were were The verb “be” indicates existence, temporary condition or permanent status. It is really hot today. Grady’s not here right now. Greg and Tim are engineers. Trudy was sick yesterday. Hawaii is in the Pacific Ocean. The base form is be, the past participle is been, and the –ing form is being I’ll be back tomorrow. He has been a doctor since 1998. She is being nice today. The verb “be” is also used in progressive tenses, passives and prepositional collocations: Progressive tenses: He is writing a letter to his brother. Jeff was cleaning the house this morning. The Holleys have been living there since April. Passive voice: The people were surprised by the news. Craig was stopped by the policeman. Prepositional collocations: Tracy is fond of chocolates. Cassie is not afraid of snakes. I’m interested in making money.

Reported Speech Reported Speech comes in two forms: direct quotes and indirect quotes. For direct quotes, the original speaker’s exact words are used within quotation marks. For indirect quotes, the original words are paraphrased and no quotation marks are used. George said, “I cannot tell a lie.” George said that he couldn’t tell a lie. Molly asked, “May I have a cookie?” Molly asked if she could have a cookie. (Direct quote)(Indirect quote) (Direct quote) (Indirect quote) In conversation, the past tense is normally used when reporting what someone else has said. However, present tense is also possible. Grandpa said (that) he would come to visit us next week. Calvin told me that he was from North Carolina. I heard that you were a computer programmer. Maria says you come from Florida. In formal situations, both present and past tense are widely used. Dr. Sownso states that . . . The research shows that . . . Mr. Tracy concluded (that) . . . In their study, Meyers and Blake claim . . . According to Dr. Bill, . . .

Noun, Pronoun

Noun Clauses່

Noun clause used as an object He said something. S V O He said that he was sick. Noun clause used as a subject Something is your business. S V Whatever you do is your business. Someone is still in the cafeteria. S V Whoever ate my lunch is still in the cafeteria.

What did he say? What is your business? Who is in the cafeteria?

The subordinator may take the "subject" or "object" position in a noun clause.

Note the usage of the following:

Henry loves Mary. (S V O) Mary loves Jim. (S V O) The person who(m) Lee loves is a secret. The person who loves Tim is a secret. Who(m) Henry loves is a secret. Who loves Tim is a secret.

Mary is the "object" of the sentence.Mary is the "subject" of the sentence. Relative clause (subordinator in obj. position) Relative clause (subordinator in subj. position) Noun clause (subordinator in obj. position) Noun clause (subordinator in subj. position)

Subordinators which are used in noun clauses:

(Some of these words are also used in Grammar: Relative Clauses and Grammar: Wh - Questions.)

thatwhat who whoever whatever whether

whichwhere when how why if

how muchhow many how long how far how often whose

Remember to preserve word order in noun clauses:

I don’t know who he is.
Whoever she is is not important.
Whatever is in the box is a mystery.
Can you tell me what he is doing?
She doesn't undestand why he is leaving.
I wonder how much that costs.
Do you know how long it will take?

Collective Nouns

Some nouns can be used with either “singular” or plural “verbs,” depending on whether the speaker is referring to them as a one group or individually.

Examples of collective nouns are:

group

family

committee

team

management

The committee has not made a decision yet.The committee have not made a decision yet. The team is posing for a photograph. The team are signing autographs.

(It will submit one conclusion as a group.)They are still arguing among themselves.) (as a group) (as individuals)

Be careful when using collective nouns with pronouns.

The Jones family is having a reunion this Sunday. It meets every summer.

The Jones family are going home on Monday. They all live in different states. 

Count/Non-Count Nouns

Count nouns have two forms: singular and plural. They can be used with numbers and quantifying expressions such as many, several, and few.

One potato

two potatoes

several potatoes

few potatoes

When used as subjects in present tense sentences, count nouns require the –s form of the verb in the singular and the base form of the verb in the plural.

The dog sleeps.

The dogs sleep.

The bear has large claws.

Non-count nouns have only one form. When used as subjects in present tense sentences, non-count nouns require the –s form of the verb.

Juice contains many vitamins.

Honesty is the best policy.

Some nouns can be either count or non-count.

Job experience is essential.Milk contains calcium.

Some experiences can be funny.Two milks, please. (informal)

Both count and non-count nouns can be quantified. That is, they can be used with expressions which divide them into parts or groups which can be counted. For example,

Two apples One cookiemilk sugar

Two bags of apples A box of cookiesTwo cartons of milk A cup of sugar

Sometimes a non-count noun is used to indicate a “group” of items, whereas individual items within the group are countable. For example,

Non-countMoney Time Clothing Furniture Luggage

Countdollars, bills, fives, cents, dimes, coins years, months, days, hours, minutes dresses, pants, shirts, socks, shoes tables, chairs, sofas, lamps suitcases, briefcases, bags, carry-ons

Singular vs. Plural English nouns can be classified as count (singular and plural) and non-count. The singular form is used when considering the noun as a single item (count) or entity (non-count). brick dog airplane person foot water sugar truth education The plural form is used when considering more than one of the same item. Non-count nouns do not have a plural form. bricks dogs airplanes people feet Things to be aware of: Regular plurals Most plurals are formed by adding –s or –es to the singular noun: boys cars pens pills pronounce /z/ cats rocks tips chiefs pronounce /s/ kisses watches boxes dishes pronounce /Iz/ In some cases, there are special spelling rules that need to be considered when forming the plural. knives hobbies quizzes Irregular plurals Some nouns take on a different form in the plural: women teeth mice children people Non-count nouns Non-count nouns do not have a plural form; however, some nouns can be used in both the count andnon-count sense: I have a lot of experience. I have a lot of experiences. Third-person singular –s Singular and non-count nouns (in the third person) require the –s form of the verb in the present tense. The girl loves painting. My dog likes to eat meat. Johnny lives next door to Jenny. Milk contains nutrients. Tommy has two hobbies. Jerry is from Colorado. Singular count nouns require an article (the, a, an) unless they are “proper” nouns Mr. Jones went to Arizona. they are preceded by a possessive My mother loves my father. they are preceded by this, that, each, every, either, neither, or one. Each man contributed one dollar. (Wrong: Apple is on table.—articles are required) The/An apple is on the table. (right) Plural nouns and singular non-count nouns do not require an article in the “generic” sense: Water is important for plants. However, they require articles (the, some) in most other cases. Please put some wine in the glasses. Plurals and Nationalities Why do we say but we say The Russians are here.* The Koreans are here. The Americans are here The Italians are here. The New Zealanders are here The Pakistanis are here. The Chinese are here.* The Japanese are here. The British are here. The Swiss are here. The French are here. The Portuguese are here. It’s mostly phonetic. That is, it depends on the final sound of the word. Words ending in -an, -ian, -er, -i require an –s in the plural Words ending in -ese, -ish, -iss, -ch do not change Languages (no article) Russian is easy. Korean is easy. Italian is easy. Chinese is easy. Japanese is easy. French is easy. Generalizations** Russians are friendly Koreans are friendly. New Zealanders are friendly. The Chinese are friendly. Chinese people are friendly. The Japanese are friendly. Japanese people are friendly. The French are friendly. Frenchmen are friendly. *If you are talking about a specific group (of Russians, etc.), the article the must be used. Most of the Italians (in this class) are female. Most of the Japanese (in the restaurant) are from Kyoto. **If you are talking generally, no article or preposition is needed. With 's' Most Americans speak English. Not: Most of Americans No 's' Most Vietnamese live in Asia. Not: Most of Vietnamese Noun and Verb Phrases   Noun Phrases are groups of words that can function as subjects or objects in sentences. They may take on various forms: Water is important for survival. (Single words) Mr. Jones spoke to Dr. James. (Proper names) The boy ate an apple. (Nouns and articles) My friend works with her father. (Nouns and possessives) The young girl wore a long, white dress. (Nouns and adjectives) Some of the kids ate all of the cake. (Nouns and quantifiers) The man with the gun frightened the people in the bank. (Nouns and prep. phrases) The woman who lives there is my aunt. (Nouns and relative clauses) The dogs sleeping on the deck should be left alone. (Nouns and phrases) Whoever wrote this is in trouble. (Noun clauses) Pronouns and similar words can also function as subjects and objects: He gave the money to us. Someone left this. Give me one of each. Verb PhrasesVerb phrases are groups of words that express action or state of being. They take on various forms. The men live in the dormitory. (Single verbs) He stayed at the Hi Hat Hotel. (Past tense verbs) I am learning many new things. (Progressive verbs) She has been there before. (Perfect verbs) They have been working here five years. (Perfect progressive verbs) I could use some assistance. (Verbs and modals) The trip was approved by the professor. (Passive verbs) Do you want some more pie? (Verbs in questions) Other words can be added to enhance verb phrases: The mayor works here. (adverbs) Neil is not a candidate. (negatives) They live in the suburbs. (prepositional phrases) She'll leave whenever she wants. (adverbial clauses) Don't talk while eating. (phrases) Pronouns   Pronouns are used in place of nouns. They enable speakers to refer to something or someone without having to repeat its name. Example: Mr. Jones lives in Kentucky. He frequently travels to Memphis to see his wife. She is a lawyer and only sees him on weekends. The subject and object pronouns in English are as follows: Subject I You He She It We They Object Me You Him Her It Us Them Use subject pronouns when the pronoun refers to the doer of the action or the main topic (subject) of the sentence. Henry hit a baseball over the fence. He didn’t know where it would land. It went right through Mrs. Crabby’s window. She was furious. She called Henry’s parents and told them what happened. Henry had to pay for the window with his hard-earned money. He wasn’t too happy about that, but he learned a lesson. Now, he only plays baseball at the ball park. Use object pronouns when the pronoun refers to the receiver of the action or is the object of a prepositional phrase. Ms. Lindon met her husband in a gold mine. The first time she saw him, she was in love. He also liked everything about her. He asked her to marry him the next day. Many friends joined them in the wedding celebration.  Reminders: Do not use subject pronouns in the object position or vice versa. WRONG: Correct:WRONG: Correct: Give the balloon to he. Give the balloon to him.Her is the one I want to see. She is the one I want to see. Remember to use he/him when referring to males and she/her when referring to females! WRONG: Correct:WRONG: Correct: Mary lived on a farm. He had a little lamb. Mary lived on a farm. She had a little lamb.Mr. Smith has gone to Washington. I'll give her the message. Mr. Smith has gone to Washington. I'll give him the message. Possessives Possessives take many forms in English. Pronouns in the possessive case can be used as adjectives to modify nouns or stand alone as subjects, objects or complements. For example, My book is on the table.Mine is on the table. I put mine in the refrigerator. The red one is mine. (used to modify a noun)(used as a subject) (used as an object) (used as a complement) See the table below. Pronouns as adjectives my his her its your our their Pronouns as subjects, objects and complementsmine his hers its (not common) yours ours theirs The possessive is formed by adding ‘s to singular nouns and plural nouns not ending in s. Such possessives can be used as modifiers, or they can stand alone. It is John’s bicycle. Those are the children’s toys. Jack’s is the white one. I’m going to Joe’s. With plural nouns ending in –s, only an apostrophe (‘) is used to form the possessive. The girls’ bicycles are in the repair shop. All the students’ books were stolen. There is/are There is/There are is a common phrase in English, used to indicate that something “exists” or is in a certain location. The main subject follows the verb when there is/are is used. There is an apple on the table. There are some apples on the table. Other forms of “be” can also be used with there is/there are. There will be a party at Bill’s house on Saturday. There were four witnesses at the crime scene. There have been two robberies in the last five months. Contractions are possible, but they are mostly used informally in speech. There’s a fly in my soup. There’re plenty of oranges left. There’ll be a lot of people in attendance. There’s is by far the most common contraction, and it is sometimes used inadvertently with plural subjects by native speakers. There’s ten people outside! Common mistakesSince the expression there is/are usually has no equivalent in other languages, students sometimes use have instead. Have a lot of food on the table. It has a lot of food on the table. There have a lot of food on the table. There is a lot of food on the table. (Incorrect) (Incorrect) (Incorrect) (Correct)                                Conditionals and wishes Real Conditionals Conditional sentences express a choice and the possible consequences of that choice. There are three types of conditional sentences: Real, Unreal and Unreal Past. The first type is the easiest to learn. It involves a present choice and a future consequence. If you drive north for three miles, you will get to Columbus. If he doesn’t exercise, Fred will gain weight. If you purchase a raffle ticket, you might win a car. Real conditional sentences contain two parts, the if clause, and the result clause.The if clause indicates the choice and is expressed in present tense. It indicates a choice and can be either positive or negative. If statements can also imply the opposite choice and result. If you study hard you will pass the test.If you don’t study hard, you could fail. (Choice and possible result) (Implied opposite choice and result) The result clause indicates the consequence or possible consequence, and is expressed in future tenseor with modals can, could or might. If clauseIf you eat your spinach, If I quit my job, If Troy moves to Hollywood, Result clauseyou will grow stronger. I can spend more time with the kids. he might become a movie star.   Present unreal conditionals Present unreal conditionals indicate a situation which is only imagined or in some-one's mind. For instance: I wish I had a pony. If I had a pony, I would ride it every day. (I don’t really have a pony.)(I imagine what I would do.) To form present unreal conditionals, use past tense in the if clause and would + verb in the main clause. A: What would you do if you had a million dollars? B: If I had a million dollars, I would invest it in the stock market. A: What would you do if you didn’t have to come to school today? B: If I didn’t have to come to school, I would go to the amusement park. For present unreal conditionals, it is common to use were in place of all forms of “be” in the if clause (regardless of the subject). If I were you, I would get a lawyer. If I were a lawyer, I would not charge you. If she were a lawyer, Sheila would be rich. Sometimes could can be used in place of would in the main clause: If I had more free time, I could travel around the world. Past Conditionals Past conditionals are used when talking about decisions or actions that you wish had been different. They indicate hypothetical situations from the past using “if” statements. To form the past conditional, use past perfect in the “if” clause. Verbs in the main clause will depend on whether you are referring to the present or the past. For example* I wish I hadn’t drunk so much last night. Now I feel terrible. If I hadn’t drunk so much last night, I wouldn’t feel so terrible now. (past action and present consequence) I wish I hadn’t drunk so much last night. I felt terrible then. If I hadn’t drunk so much last night, I wouldn’t have felt so terrible. (past action and past consequence) I wish I had left home sooner. I was late for the party last night. If I had left home sooner, I wouldn’t have been late for the party. (past action and past consequence) I wish I had left home sooner. Now I am stuck in traffic. If I had left home sooner, I wouldn’t be stuck in traffic. (past action and present consequence) Present Wishes Present wishes indicate something that is “contrary to fact.” That is, wishes are something that is untrue but desired. For example, I wish that I had a sports car. I wish that I were a doctor. (The truth is I don’t have a sports car.)(I’m really not a doctor.) For present wishes, the past tense is used in the that clause, because it indicates a situation that is only imagined. Sometimes the word that is omitted. She wishes (that) she had a diamond ring. He wishes (that) he were rich. To express possibility (can) and future intention (will), use the modals could and would respectively. She wishes that she could sing. They wish that she would stop. When a “be” verb is required, the word were is used, regardless of the subject. We wish you were here. I wish (that) I were taller. Past Wishes Past wishes indicate things we imagine would have been different in the past, although we cannot change them. For past wishes, use the past perfect in the that clause. I wish (that) I had gone to Cincinnati He wishes that he had been elected chairman. They wish they had won the lottery. (I really didn’t go.)(He wasn’t elected.) (They didn’t win.)

 

Hope vs. Wish

 

Wish is most commonly used in hypothetical (or imagined) situations:

I wish that I had a dog. (I don't really have a dog, but if I did, I would be happy.)
I wish (that) you were here. (Unfortunately, you're not, and I miss you.)

Sometimes wish is used in greeting and expressions of goodwill:

We wish you a "Merry Christmas." They wished him "Happy Birthday." Wish me luck.

(S V IO DO)

Hope can also be used in expressions of goodwill, but the grammar is slightly different:

I hope (that) you have a Merry Christmas. I hope (that) you had a nice Birthday.

(some time in the future) (some time in the past)

Hope can be used to specify a desired outcome. For future hopes, the possibilities remain open, but forpast hopes, the outcome has usually been determined already.

I hope you can come to the party on Saturday. I was hoping that you would come to the party. I had hoped to see you at the party on Saturday. I hope to get an A on the exam. I hope it doesn't rain tomorrow. He hopes to be elected President. She hoped you wouldn't find her.

(future possibility) (but you didn't make it) (but I didn't) (it is still possible) (although it might) (it could happen) (but you probably did)

Wish and hope are also used in certain types of requests and pleasantries. In such situations, wishcarries a more definite and formal tone.

I wish to see the doctor. I hope to see you again.

(right now)(anytime in the future)